The Amazon, which spans approximately 6,118,000 km² across eight South American nations, represents an ecosystem of vital importance for global climate regulation and biodiversity conservation. However, this ecosystem is currently facing unprecedented threats. Deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and inadequate governance are jeopardizing its ability to maintain global ecological balance. Despite the establishment of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT) in 1978 and the formation of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO) in 1998, effective transnational governance of the Amazon remains a challenge. In this context, the need arises to explore alternative approaches to the protection of the Amazon.
Paradiplomacy, defined as international relations conducted by sub-state actors such as provinces and cities, emerges as a possible complementary solution to traditional state-centered models of environmental governance. This study examines the potential of paradiplomacy as a mechanism for addressing the complex challenges facing the Amazon ecosystem. It is postulated that paradiplomatic initiatives undertaken by subnational governments in collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies have the potential to make a significant contribution to the sustained focus on Amazon conservation and to overcome the limitations of traditional governance. In this sense, the primary objective is to provide an overview of the current status of cooperation among Amazonian countries and to offer a novel perspective on multilevel environmental governance in one of the most critical regions of the world. This is with a view to developing future strategies for conservation and sustainable development.
The Amazon: A vital ecosystem for global climate regulation
The Amazon, the planet’s largest tropical forest biome, plays a key role in regulating global climate (Aquae Foundation 2021) and mitigating anthropogenic climate change (Zaar 2021). Covering approximately 6,118,000 km² of the watershed’s surface area and extending across nine South American nations (ACTO 2024), this vast ecosystem harbours great biodiversity and provides critical ecosystem services for global environmental stability.
The importance of the Amazon in climate change mitigation
The Amazon basin functions as a major carbon sink, taking up and storing significant amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide (Vicuña et al. 2018). Recent research by the Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project estimates that Amazonian forests contain approximately 37 billion metric tons of carbon across the Amazon in their biomass (MAAP 2023). This carbon absorption process is crucial to mitigating the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The photosynthetic process of the Amazonian flora not only captures CO2, but also releases oxygen and water vapor into the atmosphere (Carvajal et al. 2014). The latter contributes significantly to the regional and global hydrological cycle, influencing rainfall patterns in such distant and far-flung areas (Jordao 2018). This phenomenon, known as “flying rivers,” according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 2022), underlines the transcontinental importance of the Amazon in climate regulation.
In addition, the Amazon plays a crucial role in modulating global temperatures. The dense vegetation cover absorbs a substantial amount of solar radiation, contributing to the cooling of the earth’s surface (Fundación M.J. Bustamante de la Fuente 2010). Evapotranspiration from Amazonian flora amplifies this cooling effect, releasing moisture into the atmosphere and forming clouds that reflect incident solar radiation (Walschburger, 2020).
Problems and challenges in the Amazon
However, despite its importance as a regulator, the Amazon faces a number of threats that jeopardize its ability to mitigate climate change and maintain global ecological stability. Deforestation, driven by illegal logging, expansion of the agricultural frontier (particularly for soy production and extensive cattle ranching), and mining activities, is causing an alarming loss of forest cover (WWF 2016). This extensive deforestation not only directly reduces forest cover but also exacerbates another serious problem: forest fires. Many of these fires, often of anthropogenic origin, further contribute to the degradation of this crucial ecosystem.
Another driver is habitat fragmentation, which severely threatens the ecological integrity of the Amazon. The construction of infrastructure such as roads and hydroelectric dams is segmenting the forest into isolated patches, affecting biodiversity and reducing the ecosystem’s capacity to absorb carbon and resist climate change (Wenzel et al. 2022). Projects such as the Interoceanic Highway have opened areas of primary forest to exploitation, facilitating deforestation and illegal logging (Johanson 2024). This fragmentation not only disrupts natural wildlife corridors, but also catalyzes the colonization of previously inaccessible areas.
Finally, it is inexorable to mention that poor governance hinders the conservation and sustainable management of the Amazon. Lack of cross-country coordination, corruption and inadequate enforcement of environmental laws allow illegal activities to thrive in protected areas (Glave andBorasino 2019). The absence of an effective transnational governance framework has resulted in contradictory policies, where short-term economic interests often prevail over environmental considerations (Ipenza 2014).
The preservation of the Amazon transcends regional responsibility, becoming a global imperative. Its preponderant role in climate regulation and climate change mitigation makes its protection crucial for the future of the biosphere. The international community must work synergistically with Amazonian countries to ensure the survival and health of this vital ecosystem for the planet.
Governance and administration of the Amazon
In order to ensure the proper administration of the Amazon, the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT) was signed in Brasília on 3 July 1978, with Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname, and Bolivia as signatory countries. The main objective of the ACT is to promote the harmonious development of the Amazonian territories of the signatory countries (ACT 1978). It aims for fair and mutually advantageous outcomes, while also focusing on environmental preservation and the responsible use of the region’s natural resources. (ACT 1978). In this regard, to achieve a balance between environmental preservation and economic growth in the Amazon region, the Treaty proposes actions such as promoting scientific research, conserving flora and fauna, coordinating health services and stimulating the social and economic development of the Amazon territories. By fostering cooperation among member countries, the ACT seeks to create a unified approach to managing the unique challenges of the Amazon, ensuring sustainable development that benefits both the environment and the local populations.
The ACT is implemented through the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO 1998), whose goal is to promote the sustainable development of the Amazon region, improve the well-being of its populations, and strengthen the sovereignty of member countries. ACTO focuses on regional and international cooperation, creating programs and projects for sustainable forest management, conservation, and training, ensuring long-term benefits for local communities and preserving the Amazon’s ecological, social, and economic importance. The “ACTO’s highest instance is the Meeting of Foreign Ministers, supported by the Amazon Cooperation Council (CCA) and the Coordination Commission of the Amazon Cooperation Council (CCOOR). At the national level, Member Countries have Permanent National Commissions (PNC) responsible for implementing the provisions of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty within their respective territories” (ACTO 2010, 11).
Lack of cooperation among Amazonian countries and limitations of the ACTO
The Amazon Summit held in Belém do Pará on August 8th and 9th, 2023, highlighted the lack of consensus regarding the ambitious goal of achieving zero deforestation by 2030 and taking decisive actions against fossil fuel exploitation, reflecting the political and economic disparities among the region’s countries (El Peruano 2023).
The Belém Declaration, signed during the Amazon Summit, outlines objectives for cooperation against illicit activities and establishes a financial mechanism, yet it lacks specific goals to address deforestation and illicit economies (Marengo, 2023). In this sense, while it is true that regional efforts to address deforestation have been proposed, none have effectively mitigated the severe negative impacts on the Amazon Forest and its ecosystems. Despite the urgency, the OTCA has struggled to enforce robust forest protection policies due to a lack of political will to address the limitations posed by national sovereignty (Lizarazo et al. 2021).
This complex scenario is further complicated by the varying levels of commitment and progress among Amazonian countries in addressing deforestation and ecosystem preservation. A notable example of positive progress can be observed in Brazil, which witnessed a 36% decline in deforestation under the leadership of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, marking the lowest level since 2015 (WRI, 2024). These remarkable achievements are attributed to the president’s focus on prioritizing environmental protection and implementing effective conservation strategies. However, other countries like Peru have not shown strong commitment to fighting deforestation and preserving ecosystems, despite ratifying international treaties (Marengo, 2023). These disparities in commitment and action regarding deforestation and ecosystem preservation among Amazonian countries illustrate the diverse visions and capacities of each member country. The persistent prioritization of short-term national interests over the long-term survival of the Amazon rainforest is not only shortsighted but potentially catastrophic; it is crucial to establish urgent and decisive cooperative efforts among these countries to prevent irreversible damage to the Amazon, regardless of individual political or economic agendas.
Paradiplomacy: An alternative approach to the protection of the Amazon
Paradiplomacy as a complement (not a threat) to the nation-state model
The latter half of the 21st century has witnessed a proliferation of significant political and socioeconomic challenges across Latin America. Although the protection of the Amazon has been and will continue to be a matter of crucial importance, the current circumstances faced by Latin American countries have relegated this issue to their governmental agendas. Given these conditions, it is relevant to consider the potential contribution of paradiplomacy to maintaining attention in the Amazon region.
Paradiplomacy is the practice of international relations carried out by sub-state actors like provinces and cities, aiming to meet their specific needs through international cooperation (Noe 2018). This concept is closely related to cross-border management, which Gallardo Pérez (2005) identified as the origin of non-central governments interest in international affairs. Paradiplomacy in transborder regions can optimize coordination between neighboring states in areas such as technical assistance, information exchange, and the management of shared resources.
At this point, it is necessary to make a clear theoretical distinction between paradiplomacy and protodiplomacy. The functional objective of the former focuses on guaranteeing or improving the functioning of non-central government or community development, generally due to economic needs, cultural development, or knowledge transfer, among other reasons. Economic, border-related, and altruistic motivations usually pursue almost exclusively these functionalist objectives. On the other hand, protodiplomacy is the international activity of non-central governments with separatist intentions (Alvarez 2021). In the Amazon, we identify paradiplomacy as an instrument that allows subnational governments, within their constitutional competencies, to be an extension of the central government and, through decentralized international cooperation, to achieve the ultimate goal of the State, which is the well-being of the population.
Paradiplomacy of subnational governments and their interaction with NGO and International Organizations
In the absence of action from the state and ACTO, indigenous peoples and subnational governments are increasingly seeking assistance from NGOs and international organizations. Notable organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the Amazon Fund play a pivotal role in providing assistance and safeguarding the Amazon region. These entities facilitate the implementation of ecosystem conservation projects, sustainable development initiatives, and the defense of the rights of indigenous populations and the environment. They do so in collaboration with local authorities.
The emergence of paradiplomacy in the Amazon is evidenced by the conclusion of investment agreements, the implementation of joint projects, and the participation of regional actors in international forums. It is important to acknowledge that, despite the strengthening of environmental cooperation in the region through these alliances, they are not without challenges including conflicts of interest and legal barriers.
governmental conservation action in Amazonia
The role of NGOs and IGOs in Amazon paradiplomacy Influence of the government of the day on the participation of NGOs and IOIs: the case of Brazil under Lula
The dynamics of environmental governance in Brazil illustrate how the attitude of the central government affects Amazon paradiplomacy. The executive’s attitude toward international cooperation is critical to the synergy between NGOs, international agencies, and subnational governments in conserving the Amazon biome. The contrast between the Bolsonaro and Lula da Silva administrations illustrates this dynamic. Bolsonaro has taken an antagonistic stance,
dismantling environmental monitoring mechanisms and withdrawing support for the Amazon Fund, leading to record deforestation in 2023. In contrast, Lula in his new government has promoted a policy of multilateral engagement, reactivating international cooperation for the conservation of the Amazon (Phillips 2023). This openness has facilitated the participation of non-state and sub-national actors in conservation initiatives, strengthening multilevel
environmental governance. The reactivation of the Amazon Fund and Brazil’s selection by the UN to host COP30 reflect this shift towards a more robust and collaborative environmental paradigm (El Comercio 2023).
The concept of paradiplomacy represents a novel and promising paradigm in the domain of environmental governance within the Amazon region. This study has demonstrated how paradiplomatic initiatives can effectively supplement traditional state-led conservation efforts, offering a more adaptive and responsive approach to local complexities.
The findings of this study indicate that the proactive involvement of subnational governments, in collaboration with non-governmental organizations and international entities, can have a positive impact on the preservation of the Amazon ecosystem. This multilevel approach has demonstrated its potential to transcend the inherent limitations of governance in Latin America, facilitating more agile and contextualized responses to environmental challenges. However, it is essential to acknowledge that the implementation of paradiplomatic strategies presents its own set of challenges.
The lack of political commitment from Amazonian nations, as evidenced at the 2023 Amazon Summit, persists as a significant obstacle. Similarly, the ongoing tension between short-term economic imperatives and long-term conservation objectives represents a significant challenge in the formulation and implementation of effective environmental policies.
In conclusion, as the Amazon region persists in facing critical threats, paradiplomacy represents an innovation in environmental governance that merits further analysis and development. Future research should concentrate on evaluating the long-term impacts of paradiplomatic initiatives and investigating modalities for integrating these efforts more effectively with national and international conservation policies.
Suggested Readings
Alvarez, Mariano. 2021. «Debates teóricos sobre la acción exterior de los gobiernos no centrales. Una propuesta sintetizadora respecto de la paradiplomacia». Papel Político 26: 1-23. doi: https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.papo26.dtae
Marengo, Melissa. 2023. World Resources Institute. Natural Resource Governance Institute, October 12, 2023. https://resourcegovernance.org/articles/amazon-summit-climate-negotiations-importance-shared-vision
Vargas, Everton Vieira. 2023. «Forest and Paradiplomacy». Relações Internacionais no Mundo Atual 5: 191-215. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.21902/Revrima.v5i38.6208
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